One of the most productive research and development concerns in the United States during the twentieth century, Bell Telephone Laboratories, commonly known as Bell Labs, produced numerous inventions that shaped communication, commerce, and everyday life during the twentieth century.

The venture that became known as Bell Labs grew out of Western Electric, the manufacturing division of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T). In 1925, AT&T president Walter Gifford established the Bell Telephone Laboratories division to assume the duties of the electrical engineering department of Western Electric, which had been responsible for a number of early advances in telephone technology. From its inception, Bell Labs employed some of the world’s most prominent scientists, producing some of the most dramatic technological advancements of the twentieth century. Among its early inventions were the facsimile (fax) machine, long-distance television transmission, the solar energy cell, and stereo radio broadcasts.

With the outbreak of World War II, Bell Labs refocused its research on the war effort, but it produced a number of inventions during the postwar era that revolutionized modern communications and commerce. Among the most dramatic of these inventions were the transistor, invented in 1947, and the laser, first described in a paper by Charles Townes and William Schawlow in 1957. The transistor made possible the use of smaller, higher-quality, and more durable audio equipment and communications devices, while the laser led to the development of numerous technologies, including laser surgery, highly accurate measuring and timekeeping devices, compact discs (CDs), and digital versatile discs (DVDs).

Apple has been one of the driving forces in innovation in the personal computer and consumer electronics industries. Even at times when the company was considered a niche player in personal computing, features that it pioneered often made their way into products marketed by its more successful competitors. In the twenty-first century, with its iPod MP3 player, the company expanded from computing to marketing “digital lifestyle” devices, and it grew to become the world’s largest online purveyor of digital music files.

Apple (originally Apple Computer) was founded by Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs, who had close ties to the 1960’s counterculture, and the corporate culture of Apple reflected that mind-set. The Apple motto, Think Different, was not only a counterpoint to Think, the decades-old motto of International Business Machines (IBM), but also a paean to counterculture nonconformity. When Jobs first sought outside investors, he had no idea how to compose a business plan. He had to learn how to relate to corporate executives and produce formal business documents to acquire capital.

Apple quickly established its reputation for innovation. The Apple II personal computer had floppy disk drives at a time when other personal computers still depended on magnetic tape drives for data and software storage. As a result, Apple II users were able to load and operate complex programs such as VisiCalc, the original spreadsheet application and the original “killer app” (that is, a software application that by itself justifies the purchase of the hardware on which it runs). In 1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh, which boasted the first graphical user interface (GUI) on a consumer computer. Users were no longer required to memorize arcane codes for data paths and commands. Instead, a visual representation of a desktop containing folders and files allowed for more intuitive manipulation of applications and data.

Spies were one of the most elite units in every conflict. Having inside information from the opponents camp most of the times was adequate to decide the outcome of war. Nowadays spying is one of the most widespread tactics in corporate world. Search engine optimization couldn’t be any different.

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